Relative Adverbs

Relative adverbs are when, where, and why. They are used in adjective clauses in a similar way to relative pronouns (who, whom, that, and which).

Using WHEN in Adjective Clauses

When is used in adjective clause which modifies the time noun. It replaces a preposition + noun (time). Look at the examples.
1. I never forget the day. I met you then (on the day).
→ I never forgot the day when I met you.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'when' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ I never forgot the day which I met you on.
→ I never forgot the day on which I met you.

2. Noon is the time. We eat lunch then (at the time).
→ Noon is the time when we eat lunch.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'when' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ Noon is the time which we eat lunch at.
→ Noon is the time at which we eat lunch.

3. I was born in the 1980s. Our country was so poor then (during the time).
→ I was born in the 1980s when our country was so poor.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'when' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ I was born in the 1980s during which our country was so poor.

Using WHERE in Adjective Clauses

Where is used in adjective clause which modifies the place noun. It replaces a preposition + noun (place). Look at the examples.
1. The building is very old. He lives there (in that building).
→ The building where he lives is very old.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'where' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ The building which he lives in is very old.
→ The building in which he lives is very old.

2. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there (in the city).
→ The city where we spent our vacation was beautiful.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'where' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ The city which we spent our vacation at was beautiful.
→ The city at which we spent our vacation was beautiful.

3. I went to the village. I was born there (in the village).
→ I went to the village where I was born.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'where' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ I went to the village which I was born in.
→ I went to the village in which I was born.

Using WHY in Adjective Clauses

When is used in adjective clause which modifies the time noun. It replaces a preposition + noun (time). Look at the examples.
1. He didn't tell us the reasons. He left the company for the reasons.
→ He didn't tell us the reasons why he left the company.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'why' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ He didn't tell us the reasons for which he left the company.

2. Do you know the reason? She cried because of the reason.
→ Do you know the reason why she cried?
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'why' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ Do you know the reason because of which she cried?

3. Tell me the reason. You came home late due to the reason.
→ Tell me the reason why you came home late.
Alternatively, you can use 'which' to join these two clauses, too. Remember that 'which' is used instead of a noun, while 'why' is used instead of 'preposition + noun'.
→ Tell me the reason due to which you came home late.

Reference

Betty Schrampfer Azar (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar. Third Edition. Pearson Education.

What is Word?

Word is a single unit of language which has meaning and can be spoken or written. It is the smallest element in a sentence. To be a word, word should have a part of speech, a word stress, and meaning understood by the user and the audience.

It is estimated that average speakers of a language know from 45,000 to 60,000 words. An educated person knows some 75,000 words while an ordinary person knows some 35,000 words easily. In an online magazine article "The words in the mental cupboard", BBC claimed that there is between one to two million words in English-- one word is created every 98 minutes.

WORD CLASSES

All words belong to certain categories called word classes (or parts of speech). How they are categorized depends on the role each word plays in a sentence. In English, there are 8 word classes:

• Nouns
• Pronouns
• Verbs
• Adjectives 
• Adverbs
• Prepositions
• Conjunctions
• Interjections

Word Formation Processes

The number of words is growing; therefore, understanding some basic word formation processes will be helpful in one's learning. You will guided to some words formation processes that might be discuessed in linguistics courses. They are borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, back formation, conversion, acronym, derivation, and affixation.

[1] Borrowing

A word is formed by borrowing the words in other languages. Look at the origins and examples of borrowing words below: 
• From French: treason, surplus, enemy...
• From Latin: abdomen, actor, agriculture, creditor, veto...
• From Greek: babaric, cube, echo, charisma ...
• From Arabic: alcohol, coffee, arsenal, mafia...

[2] Compounding

A new word is formed by compounding (or joining) two separate words. For examples,
• girl + friend → girldfriend
• hand + bag → handbag
• pop + corn → popcorn
• fire + plug → fireplug

[3] Blending

A new word is formed by joining the beginning part of word with the ending part of another word. For examples,
• breakfast + lunch → brunch
• fantastic + fabulous → fantabulous
• smoke + fog → smog
• gasoline + alcohol → gasohol

[4] Clipping

A new word is formed by reducing some syllable so that the new word is shorter. For examples,
• photograph → photo
• information → info
• examination → exam
• advertisement → ad

[5] Back formation

Similar to clipping, a new word is formed by reducing some syllable so that the new word is shorter, but there is a change in part of speech. For examples,
• television → televise
• option → opt
• editor → edit
• donation → donate

[6] Conversion

A new word is formed by chaning the word class of one word to another wordreducing some syllable so that the new word is shorter. For examples,
• paper (n) → to paper (v)
• spy (n) → to spy (n)
• total (n) → to total (v)
• empty (adj) → to empty (v)

[7] Acronyms

A new word is formed from the initial letters of a set of words, which are in capital letters; it becomes everyday word. For examples,
• radio detecting and ranging → radar
• light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation → laser
• self contained underwater breathing apparatus→ scuba

[8] Derivation

A new word is formed by adding an affix to the root word. Affixes are divided into 3 groups: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes.

Prefixes

A prefix is added to the beginning of a word to form another new word. For examples,
• dis- + honest → dishonest
• ir- + regular → irregular
• mis- + guide → misguide
• un- + happy → unhappy

Suffixes
A suffix is added to the end of a word to form another new word. For examples, • invite + -ation → invitation
• able + -ility → ability
• happy + -ness → happiness
• friend + -ship → friendship

Infixes
An infix, the least common affix in English, is added inside a word to form another new word. For examples, • absolutely + -bloody- → absobloodylutely
• unbelievable + -flipping- → unbeflippinglievable
• fantastic + -freakin- → fanfreakintastic

Interjection

by Teng Sam An  


An interjection is a word, phrase, or sentence used to show a sudden, strong feeling such as surprise, pain, pleasure, anger, fear, or greeting somebody. It starts with a capital letter and ends with an exclamation mark (!).

Interjections can be just one or two words; for examples,

• Good luck!
• Good morning!
• Good night!
• Good!
• Goodness!
• Happy Birthday!
• Happy New Year!
• Hello!
• Help!
• Help!
• Hey!
• Look out!
• Merry Christmas!
• Oh dear!
• Oh no!
• Oh!
• Ouch!
• Thanks!
• Well done!
• Wow!
• Yeah!

The interjections can also be phrases or sentences; for examples,

• How sad!
• I told you not to go out on your own!
• What a lovely day!
• What a shame!
• What a silly thing to do!
• You’re completely wrong!

Note: You can also use exclamation points with strong orders.

• Be quiet!
• Do it now!
• Don’t move!
• Freeze!
• Give me that ball!
• Leave that computer alone!

Conjunction

Sam An Teng


Conjunction is a word that connects and shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses. For examples, it connects  

• word to word: silver and gold
• phrase to phrase: a new villa or a new house
• clause to clause: Bopha planted a flower, and she watched it grow.

There are four kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. 


Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank: noun with noun, adjective with adjective, verb with verb, phrase with phrase, main clause with main clause, and subordinate clause with subordinate clause.

There are 7 coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. One simple way to remember them is to think of the acronym FANBOYS.

FOR – used to show reason; as,

• She didn’t come to class, for she was sick.

AND – used to add additional information; as,

• She worked for the company very long, and she wanted to retire.

NOR – used to show negative idea/meaning; as,

• He is not smart, nor is he industrious.

BUT – used to show contrast; as,

• The teacher is strict, but he explains the lessons clearly.

OR – used to connect to choice; as,

• You can select these courses, or you will do it next semester.

YET – used to connect to exception; as,

• The football team played very well, yet they lost.

SO – used to connect to result; as,

• I didn’t scan the disk, so my computer was infected with Trojan horse.

Correlative Conjunctions

Paired conjunctions such as either/or, neither/nor, and both/and are correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs.

EITHER … OR – we use either … or to talk about a choice between two possibilities (and sometimes more than two); as,

• Either mom or dad will pick you up.
• You can either have tea or coffee.
• You can either come with me or walk home.
• Either you leave this house or I’ll call the police.

NEITHER … NOR (NOT… EITHER) – we use it to mean ‘also not’; as,

• They neither decide to start the project nor to introduce alternatives.
• They neither give foods nor medicine to the victims.
• The book is neither interesting nor accurate.

BOTH … AND – we usually put the same kind of words after both… and; as,

• She is both pretty and clever.
• I talked to both my supervisor and his assistant.
• She both studies and works.

WHETHER … OR – we can use it to mean “it doesn’t matter whether… or…”; as,

• Whether you like it or not, you will have to pay. 
• I do not care whether you go or stay.

NOT ONLY … BUT ALSO – we use to add similar idea; as,  

• Not only is he foolish, but also obstinate.  
• Yesterday it not only rained, but also snowed. 

Subordinating Conjunctions 

Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses with main clauses.

For examples, 

• He comes home early because today is his daughter's birthday.
• I will lend you some money unless you pay me back.
• Whenever I see the pile of reports on my table, I get a headache.
• I've been teaching since I graduated.

The most common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, because, before, but, that, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, till, until, when, whenever, where, whereas,whether, wherever... 


Conjunctive Adverbs (Adverbial conjunctions)

Adverbial conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses.

For examples,  

• I am tired; therefore, I want to sleep.
• I tried hard; however, I couldn’t understand.
• My job offers good salary; in addition, it provides good working environment.

Adverbial conjunctions include the following words and phrases: also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, soon, therefore, similarly, then, thus... 

Preposition

A preposition is a word or group of words that function as a connective. The preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence.

Some of the most common prepositions are: about, above, across, after, against, among, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, over, past, to, toward, under, until, upon, with...

Some prepositions are composed of more than one word and are made up from other parts of speech: according to, ahead of, along with, as far as, as well as, aside from, back of, because of, in spite of, instead of, in front of, together with...


TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS

There are five types prepositions: simple prepositions, compound prepositions, double prepositions, participle prepositions, and phrase prepositions.

[1] Simple prepositions

Simple prepositions are words like in, on, at, about, over, under, off, of, for, to, etc.
  •  She sat on the sofa.
  •  The book is in the drawer.
  •  He looks at me strangely.

[2] Compound prepositions

Compound prepositions are words like without, within, inside, outside, into, beneath, below, behind, between, etc.
  •  He fell into the river.
  •  She sat between her kids.
  •  He sat beside her.

[3] Double prepositions

Double prepositions are words like outside of, out of, from behind, from beneath, etc.
  •  Suddenly he emerged from behind the curtain.
  •  He walked out of the room.

[4] Participle prepositions

A participial preposition is a participle (an -ed or -ing verb) that functions as a preposition. Some of the most common examples are: assuming, barring, considering, during, given, notwithstanding, provided, regarding, and respected.   •  There was little chance of success, notwithstanding they decided to go ahead.
  •  You did the job well, considering your age and inexperience.
  •  I could not find another source concerning this matter.
  •  Considering that you’re here, maybe you can clear up something for me.

[5] Phrase prepositions

Phrase prepositions are phrases like because of, by means of, with regard to, on behalf of, instead of, on account of, in opposition to, for the sake of, etc.
  •  I am standing here on behalf of my friends and colleagues.
  •  The match was cancelled because of the rain.
  •  He succeeded by means of perseverance.


USES OF PREPOSITIONS

[1] Preposition of place 

The common preposition of place are: at, on, in, under, underneath, over, above, beside, next, in front of, behind, inside, outside, ... For examples,
  •  She is at the hospital now.
  •  The book is on the table.
  •  Our plane will fly over the Atlantic.

[2] Preposition of time 

The common preposition of time are: at, in, on, past, during, by, before, until... For examples,
  •  Please meet here at 7 o'clock tomorrow.
  •  You can come to see him in the afternoon.
  •  We've canceled our party on Sunday.
  •  You need to finish your homework by next week.

[3] Preposition of direction 

The common preposition of directions are: after, down, along, through, toward, on, at, from, of ... For examples,
  •  The cat chased after the mouse.
  •  He walks toward the museum.
  •  The robber pointed the gun at her.

[4] Prepositions with special uses 

Many prepositions are used in other ways. Here are some of them.

OF
  •   I bought a kilo of sugar.
  •   I need three pieces of paper.
  •  That is very kind of you.

FOR
  •  I've made this coffee for you.
  •  We are going for a meeting.
  •  What is this table for?

WITH
  •  The man wrote the letter with his blood.
  •  Please, mix the white with red wines.
  •  She looks pretty with a new dress.
  •  Would you like to come with us?

EXCEPT and INSTEAD OF
  •  I like all kinds of fruits except dragon fruit.
  •  I decide to study English instead of Economics.

LIKE, AS, and THAN
The words like, as and than are used to compare things.
  •  She looks like her sister.
  •  Is this durian the same as another one?
  •  This car is more expensive than another one.


PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun phrase. It functions as adjective or adverb in a sentence.  For examples,

  •  We can have dinner at the new restaurant. [adverb]
  •  We will be back in a few days. [adverb]
  •  The lion was killed by the hunter.  [adverb]
  •  The article on corruption drew a lot of criticism. [adjective]
  •  I had an argument with my brother. [adjective]
  •  Mary is the girl in the red dress.  [adjective]

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions: how? where? when? or how much/to what degree? Look at these examples,

 •  He runs quickly. [how does he run?]
 •  I go home. [Where do I go?]
 •  I get up late. [When do I get up?]
 •  I am very happy? [How happy am I?]


TYPES OF ADVERBS

[1] Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner tell how or the way in which things happen. They answer the questions: “how…?” or “in what way…?” For examples,

 •  She ran the race quickly.
 •  He yelled loudly.
 •  He completed the task skillfully.
 •  She answered him courteously.

[2] Adverbs of degree

Adverbs of degree tell the degree or the extent of how something is; they answer to the question: “to what degree?” or “to what extend?”  The common adverbs of degree are: adequately, almost, entirely, extremely, fairly, greatly, highly, hugely, immensely, moderately, partially, perfectly, practically, profoundly, quite, strongly, totally, tremendously, very, virtually, etc. For examples,

 •  She is entirely correct.
 •  He was somewhat happy.
 •  The water was extremely cold.
 •  I am too tired to go out tonight.

[3] Adverbs of place

Adverbs of place tell the location; they answer the question “where?”. The common adverbs are: abroad, anywhere, here, outside, somewhere, there, underground, upstairs, etc. For examples,

 •  They drove downtown.
 •  She climbed upstairs.
 •  He stayed behind.
 •  The bird flew here.

[4] Adverbs of time

Adverbs of time indicate time; they answer the question: “when?” The common adverbs are: afterwards, eventually, finally, later, now, soon, still, yesterday, etc. For examples,

 •  The ship sailed yesterday.
 •  I expect an answer soon.
 •  I eventually went to the shops.
 •  I'm still at the shops.

 [5] Adverbs of frequency

Adverb of frequency tell how often things happen. They answer the question "how often…?".  Here are the adverbs of frequency listed in order of their frequency; i.e. from most frequent to least frequent: always, constantly, nearly/almost always, usually, generally, normally, regularly, often, frequently, sometimes, periodically, occasionally, now and then, once in a while, rarely, seldom, infrequently, hardly ever, scarcely ever, almost never, and never. For examples,

 •  I always do my homework on time.
 •  She goes out occasionally.
 •  He never goes to school.

[6] Adverbs of probability

Adverbs of probability tell us the likelihood of something happening. The common adverbs are: certainly, definitely, doubtless, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, etc. For examples,

 •  We will definitely win the game.
 •  We will certainly finish the project on time.

[7] Adverbs of relation (Relative adverbs)

Relative adverbs used in the same way as relative pronouns. They replace the more formal structure of "preposition + which" in a relative clause. They are: where, when, why. For examples,

 •  That's the restaurant where we met for the first time. (where = at/in which)
 •  I remember the day when we first met. (when = on which)
 •  There was a very hot summer the year when he was born. (when = in which)
 •  Tell me (the reason) why you were late home. (why = for which)

[8] Adverbs of interrogation

Interrogative adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of a question. These are: why, where, how, when. For examples,

 •  Why are you so late?
 •  Where is my passport?
 •  How are you?
 •  How much is that coat?
 •  When does the train arrive?

[9] Conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs express relationship. They act as a transition between complete ideas. They normally show comparison, contrast, cause-effect, sequence, or other relationships. They usually occur between independent clauses or sentences.

Here is a list of common conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, furthermore, moreover, similarly, also, hence, namely, still, anyway, however, nevertheless, then, besides, incidentally, meanwhile, thereafter, certainly, indeed, nonetheless, therefore, consequently, instead, now, thus, finally, likewise, otherwise, undoubtedly... For examples,

 •  He is clever; furthermore, he works hard.
 •  She studies hard; therefore, she passes the exams with flying color.

[10] Adverbs of viewpoints and commenting

These adverbs tell us about the speaker's viewpoint or opinion about an action, or make some comment on the action.

Viewpoint -- These adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence and are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. Some common Viewpoint adverbs: confidently, honestly, ideally, seriously, clearly, comically, personally, surprisingly, obviously, officially, undoubtedly, surely... For examples,

 •  Frankly, I think he is a liar.
 •  Theoretically, we can increase the price when the demand goes up.
 •  Personally, I believe you idea was right.
 •  Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the smaller model.
 •  Geographically, the market should be divided into three segments.

Commenting -- These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs, and often the same words, but they go in a different position - after the verb to be and before the main verb. Some common commenting adverbs: definitely, certainly, obviously, simply... For examples,

 •  She is certainly the best person for the job.
 •  You obviously enjoyed your meal.


USES OF ADVERBS

We use adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

[1] Used to modify verbs

For examples,
 •  They did their work quickly.
 •  He replied angrily.
 •  The bird flew crazily.

[2] Used to modify adjectives

For examples,
 •  They were somewhat happy.
 •  He is so smart.
 •  The job is quite difficult.

[3] Used to modify adverbs

For examples,
 •  The bird flew very quietly.
 •  They come too late.
 •  We have tried hard enough.

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. They describe, explain, or tell something about the nouns. Most adjectives answer the questions: What kind? Which one? and How much/many? For examples,

• happy girl
• his desk
• that boy
• five books
• many people
• first class

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

Descriptive Adjective

Descriptive adjectives tells quality/condition, appearances/looks, personality, feeling, shape, size, touch, and color. They answer the question “what kind?” For examples,

• Qualities/conditions: rich, poor, healthy, bright, advanced, modern...
• Appearances/looks: beautiful, handsome, pretty, short, tall, build, good-looking, tough...
• Personalities: honest, helpful, friendly, kind, industrious, hard-working, stingy...
• Feelings: happy, sad, distressed, painful, excited, worried, anxious...
• Shapes: oval, round, rectangle, tall, high, long, spherical...
• Sizes: big, small, narrow, wide, spacious, tiny...
• Touches: smooth, rough, bumpy, sandy, sharp, blunt...
• Colors: red, yellow, brown, cyan, purple, white, black, blue, blur...

Quantitative adjectives

Quantitative adjectives (or adjective of numbers) tells the number or amount. They answer to the questions "How much or How many?" Normally, they are classified into 3 groups:

(i) Definite numeral adjectives
They tells the number (cardinal) and order (ordinal). For examples,

• Cardinal: one, two, three, hundred, million...
• Ordinal: first, second, third, hundredth, millionth...

(ii) Indefinite numeral adjective 
They tell amount, but not the exact ones. They are: some, any, a lot of, much, many, plenty, large amount of, a great deal of... For examples,

• I have some money.
• They have a lot of paper.

(iii) Distributive numeral adjectives 
They tell the number which refers to one at a time. They are: each, every, either, neither. For examples,

• Each student has an ID Card.
• Either staff can represent the group.
• Neither policeman are allowed to torture suspects.

Proper Adjectives

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. Just like proper nouns, they start with a capital letter. They normally answer the adjective question, "What kind?" Take a look:

• Proper Noun: America, Japan, Cambodia ...
• Proper Adjective: American, Japanese, Cambodian...

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives restrict the ownership or possession of nouns. They are: my, our, your, his, her, its, and their. For examples,

• I visited their hometown.
• I left my book at home.

Demonstrative Adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives point out which nouns. They are: this, that, these, and those. For examples,

• This book is interesting.
• I like that dress.
• These cars were produced in Japan.
• Who are those people?

Interrogative Adjectives

Interrogative adjectives introduce direct or indirect questions. They are: what, which, and whose.For examples,

• He asked which way I should go.
• He wondered what problems we are having.
• Whose book is this?
• Which subjects should he take?
• What requirements do you need?

Relative Adjectives

Relative adjectives introduce clauses and modify the nouns that follow. They are: whose, whichever, and whatever. For examples,

• The student whose work is admired works very hard.
• Carry whatever foods you can.
• He will choose whichever solution is practical.

POSITIONS OF ADJECTIVES

We place or put adjectives in two main positions:

(i) Before nouns

They are placed before nouns so that they modify nouns. For examples,

• She is a hard-working student.
• It is a big and expensive house.

(ii) After linking verbs

They are placed after linking verbs and they complete the meaning of the subjects. For examples,

• She looks unhappy.
• They are friendly and helpful.

(iii) After nouns

However, adjectives in some cases, adjective phrases, and adjective clauses may be placed after the nouns they modify.

• It is not easy to make everyone satisfied.
• I don't know the man who is standing over there. [adjective clause]
• I don't know the man standing over there. [adjective phrase/particle phrase]

USES OF ADJECTIVES

We use adjectives to modify nouns or pronouns.

(i) Modifying nouns

Look at the examples.

• I prefer red apples. 
• It was a cold, gray, and ominous dawn.

(ii) modifying pronouns

Look at the examples.

• He is friendly.
• He is the happiest one.

Verbs

Verbs are the words that tell actions or states of being. For examples,

• I read a book. [ "read" shows the action. ]
• They are playing football. [ "are playing" shows action.]
• He looks happy. ["look" shows state of being happy. ]
• Mary is beautiful. [ "Mary" shows state of being beautiful] 

TYPES OF VERBS

There are two main types of verbs: action verbs (verbs that show the actions), state verbs (verbs that shows state of being or link subject and predicate).

1. Actions verbs

Action verbs, also called dynamic verbs, show actions or performance of actions such as hit, walk, explode, write, fight, teach, run, …

For examples,

• He walks to school everyday.
• She eats ice cream. 

2. State verbs

State verbs, also called linking verbs, show state of being rather than actions. They link the subject (noun phrase) of the sentence with the rest of the sentence. They show the state of being, emotion, the senses, thoughts, measurement, and possession; as, appear*, be*, equal, exist, look*, look like*, resemble, seem, sound, appreciate, amaze, astonish, care, dislike, envy, fear, hate, like, love, mind, please, prefer, feel* , hear , see* , smell* , taste*, believe, desire, know, remember, cost*, weigh*, pay, belong, have*, own, owe, possess, consist of, include*, contain …

For examples,

• He looks tired.
• They own a house.

PROPERTIES OF VERBS

There are five properties of verbs: persons, numbers, tenses, voices, and moods.

1. Persons

Person shows the identity of subjects, which are:

• First persons -- the ones speaking (I, We)
• Second persons -- the ones being spoken to (You)
• Third persons -- the ones being spoken about (He, She, It, They)

2. Numbers

Numbers tell whether the verbs agree with their subjects, i.e.

• Singular verbs -- used when the subjects are singular.
• Plural verbs -- used when the subjects are plural.

3. Tenses

Tenses show the relationship between the time and aspects of the actions or states.

• Time -- past, present, future
• Aspects -- simple, continuous, perfect simple, perfect continuous

Thus, the combinations of times and aspects form 12 tenses below--

• Past Simple,
• Past Continuous,
• Past Perfect Simple,
• Past Perfect Continuous,
• Present Simple,
• Present Continuous,
• Present Perfect Simple,
• Present Perfect Continuous,
• Future: WILL,
• Future: BE GOING TO,
• Future Continuous,
• Future Perfect Simple,
• Future Perfect Continuous

4. Voices

Voices show who or what does the action, and who or what receives the action.

• Active voice -- the subject acts or does the action.
• Passive voice -- the subject is acted upon or receives the action.

5. Moods

Mood shows the mode or manner in which a thought is expressed. It tells a reader whether a sentence is a statement, a question, a request, or a wish.

Indicative mood --

It tells whether the sentence is presented as a statement (positive or negative), or a question. For examples,

• What do you do?
• I am a student.
• She doesn't work in a bank.

Imperative mood --

It tells whether the sentence is presented a command, order, or request. For examples,

• Open the door, please!
• Review your lessons.

Subjunctive mood --

It tells whether the sentence is presented as a desire or condition contrary to the fact. For examples,

• I suggested that you read the book.
• She recommended that we discuss the problems again.
• If you were rich, what would you do?
• He acts as if he were a technician.

ROLES OF VERBS IN SENTENCE

Verbs can be divided according to the job they do in a sentence.

1. Finite verbs

Finite verb is a verb form that distinguishes person, number, and tense, and also mood or voice.

Transitive verbs

Transitive verb is the verbs that needs object, like eat, write, drink, phone.... For examples,

• He wrote a letter.
• She does her homework.

Intransitive verbs

Transitive verb is the verbs that does not need object, like smile, run, laugh, cry.... For examples,

• The baby smiled at us.
• He runs so quick.

Linking verbs

Linking verbs (also called copula verbs or state verbs) are verbs that do not show action. They link the subjects to the complement. (Please see the state verbs above.)

2. Non-finite verbs

a verb form that does not indicate person or number; they (also called verbals) are gerund, infinitive, and participles.

Infinitives

Infinitive is a verb form (to + verb) that functions as a noun. For examples,

• To understand the lessons is a lot better than to remember.
• To forgive is the best form of revenge.

Gerunds

Gerund is a verb form (verb-ing) that functions as a noun. For examples,

• Trying hard is a great value.
• Swimming is my favourite.

Participles

Participle is a verb form (either ends in -ed or -ing) that functions as an adjective or complement. For examples,

• The book is interesting.
• He is interested in it.

3. Helping verbs

a word used in construction with and preceding certain forms of other verbs, as infinitives or participles, to express distinctions of tense, aspect, mood.

Primary auxiliary verbs

Primary auxiliary verbs are BE, HAVE, and DO. For examples,

• She is playing piano. ["is" is auxiliary verb helping to create present continuous .]
• The bridge was being built. ["was" is auxiliary verb helping to create past continuous passive.]
• He has studied there for 3 years. ["has" is auxiliary verb helping to create present perfect.]
• Have you ever been abroad? ["have" is auxiliary verb helping to create present perfect question.]
• Do you like coffee? ["do" is auxiliary verb helping to create present simple question.]
• He didn't finish his homework. ["did" is auxiliary verb helping to create past simple.]

Semi-modal auxiliary verbs

Semi-modal auxiliary verbs are NEED, DARE, and USED TO. For examples,

• He used to smoke a lot.
• She used to be a teacher.
• He need not take his car.
• They need not buy this dress.
• How dare you talk to your boss like that!
• She dare not discuss with her father.

Modal verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express modality. They are: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, WILL, WOULD, and MUST. For examples,

• Can you speak English? [ability]
• May I open the window? [permission]

Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. 

For examples, 

• Ratha is studying English. She wants to be a teacher. 
• Ratha and her friends are hopeful. They are sitting in their first class.

Types of pronouns

Pronouns may be classified as personal, intensive, reflexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite, and reciprocal.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns show person; that is, they, indicate whether the pronoun stands for the person speaking, the first person; the person spoken to, the second person; or the person spoken of, the third person. Personal pronouns also have number and case. The personal pronouns are: 

• Subjective pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it
• Objective pronouns: me, you, us, them, him, her, it

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronoun shows possession or ownership. It replaces the possessive case of noun (or possessive adjective + noun).  Here are the possessive pronouns:

• Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, theirs, his, hers, its

You may be confused with possessive adjectives below: 

• Possessive adjectives: my, your, their, his, her, its

Here are examples to show whether it is possessive adjective or pronoun:

• Our family has vacation next week. [ Possessive adjective ]
• That car is ours. [ Possessive pronoun ]

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used only in the third person, to point out particular persons, places, or things.

SINGULAR: this, that 

PLURAL: these, those

For examples,

• This is my party.
• These are her pencils.
• That is Sophal's shirt.
• Those are good apples.

Note: When these words modify nouns, they are demonstrative adjectives; as,

For examples,

• This party is fun. 
• These shoes are too expensive.
• That shirt is torn. 
• Those papers arc soiled.  

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce question sentences. They are words used for asking questions. They are who, whom, whose, what, and which.

For examples, 

• Who is she? 
• Whom did you meet? 
• Whose did he take?
• What is your name? 
• Which is yours?

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to particular persons, places, or things in a vague and general manner, but not refer to any person or thing in particular; as,

• Somebody took the key to the storeroom.
• One hardly knows what to do.
• Nobody has his or her ticket.

Most indefinite pronouns are singular: another, each, neither, somebody, anybody, either, nobody, someone, anyone, everybody, no one, something, anything, everyone, one...

Some indefinite pronouns have a plural meaning only: both, few, many, several...

Other indefinite pronouns do not clearly express either a singular or plural meaning: all, any, none, some...  

Distributive Pronouns

Distributive pronouns are words that refer to persons or things one at a time. They are: each, either, and neither. For examples,

• Each of the men received a reward.
• Either of you can go.
• Neither of the accusations is true.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are words that refer or relate (i.e. carries us back) to some noun going before, which is called its Antecedents. The relative pronoun does two works, i.e. the work of a pronoun, and the work of a conjunction. They are: 

Who – people, subject; as,

• She is the woman who interviewed me. 

Whom – people, object; as, 

• She appointed the man whom I also know.

That – people, things, animals in both subject and object; as, 

• It is a dog that won the prize last time. 

Which – things, animals in both subject and object; as, 

• Tum Teav is a story which tells about a love tragedy.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Intensive and reflexive pronouns have the same forms. They are formed by adding -self or -selves (plural form) to certain personal pronouns.

The intensive pronoun usually comes after the word it stands for and emphasizes that word; as, 

• The president himself told the reporters. 
• They themselves admitted their mistake. 
• I finished the job myself.

The reflexive pronoun points the action back toward the subject. It may function as a subjective complement, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, object of a gerund, and so forth. For examples,

• She bought the dress for herself.
• She bought herself a new dress.
• The coach was not himself.
• Do you consider yourself his friend?

Reciprocal Pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns express a mutual relationship. There are two reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another. For examples,

• My brother and I help each other with our homework. 
• Peter and Mary kissed each other. 
• The gangsters were fighting one another. 
• The students in this classroom cooperate with one another.

Functions of pronouns

The pronoun, like the noun, is used in the common sentence patterns as subject, object of a verb, indirect object, object of a verbal, object of a preposition, subjective complement, and so forth. For examples,

Function as Subject

For examples,

• He studies English.
• They are architects.

Function as Object of a Verb

For examples,

• She likes him so much.
• The army defeated them and captured the town.

Function as Indirect Object
For examples,

• Piseth bought her a ring.
• The Manager offered him a new position.

Noun

Sam An Teng

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. For examples, teacher, tiger, school, car, health, happiness...

Classification of nouns

Nouns can be classified as: 

proper and common nouns

• Proper noun – A proper noun is a noun that names some particular or special place, person, people, or thing. A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter; as, Bopha, Phnom Penh, the World Bank, Samsung, the Red Sea, Cambodia, The Tales of Two Cities, Monday, September, Buddhism…   

• Common noun – A common noun is a general or class name. It refers to a person, place, or thing in a general; as, woman, city, dog, shoe, sea, village, mountain…

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

• Concrete nouns: These name something that you can perceive with your five senses – something that physically exists; as, table, school, car, horse, building, ship, airplane…  

• Abstract nouns: These are the opposite of concrete. They name something that you cannot perceive with your five senses – something that does not physically exist; as, education, kindness, health, happiness, freedom, Buddhism..

Count and Non-count Nouns

• Count Nouns (Countable nouns): Count nouns are nouns that we can count. It has a singular and a plural form. To make it plural, we need to add –s / -es to the singular noun. For examples, one book, three books; a leg, two legs; an apple, six apples…  

• Non-count nouns (mass or uncountable nouns): Mass nouns are nouns that we cannot count. It has no plural form (always in singular form, and takes singular verb). For examples, fruit, some fruit; bread, a slice of bread; homework; a lot of homework; information…

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. We can count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit; as, army, company, firm, public, audience, corporation, group, school, board, council, jury, senate, cabinet, department, majority, society, class, faculty,minority, team, committee, family, navy, troupe,

Compound Nouns 

Compound noun is a combination of two nouns. The two nouns form a new word. Normally, the first noun modifies the second one; as, policeman, boyfriend, water tank, dining-table, bedroom...

Functions of nouns 

Nouns, in sentences, can function as: 

a. subject

Subject tells whom or what the sentence is about; as, 

• Samnang works in a bank. 
• Economics is an interesting subject.

b. direct object 

direct object receives the action of the verb; as,

• He eats ice cream.
• They play tennis.

c. indirect object

Indirect object receives the direct object; as, 

• He bought his friend a pen. 
• The company offers Thavy a new position.

d. object of preposition

Object of the preposition is the noun or pronoun after a preposition; as,

• The boy was hurt in the accident. 
• The driver filled the fuel tank of the bus.

e. subject complement

Predicate nominative renames the subject, always after a linking verb; as,

• I am a candidate. 
• I am the owner of that Café.

f. object complement

Object complement completes the direct object; as, 

• I considered him brother. 
• They elected Bunna President.

g. appositive

An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun. The appositive enhances our understanding of the original noun or pronoun; as, 

• Ravy, our class monitor, studies very hard. 
• Her sister, Anna, was an intelligent student. 

h. adjective

Noun functions as adjective when it modifies another noun functions as adjective; as, 

• The water pump is broken.  
• She wore sport clothes.